The Evidence for Jesus, Part 3: Did He Rise?

This is Part 3 of a 3-part series examining the historical evidence for Jesus. Part 1 established that Jesus existed. Part 2 examined whether we can trust the Gospel accounts. This final part evaluates the evidence for the resurrection.

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Everything comes down to this.

Whether you're a skeptic, a seeker, or a lifelong Christian, the resurrection is the claim that matters most. If it happened, Christianity's central assertion is vindicated. If it didn't, the movement's foundation crumbles — as even its earliest proponents acknowledged.

Paul, writing roughly 20 years after Jesus' death, understood the stakes:

If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile and you are still in your sins... If in Christ we have hope in this life only, we are of all people most to be pitied. — 1 Corinthians 15:17, 19 (ESV)

Christianity doesn't claim Jesus was a good teacher whose example we should follow. It claims he died and physically rose from the dead — and that this event changed everything about human history and human destiny.

Can we examine this claim historically? What evidence would we expect if it happened? And how does the evidence we have compare?

The Minimal Facts Approach

Gary Habermas, a resurrection scholar, has spent decades cataloguing what historians across the theological spectrum accept about the events surrounding Jesus' death. His "minimal facts" approach focuses only on data points accepted by the vast majority of scholars — including skeptics.¹

These facts don't assume the resurrection happened. They're the historical bedrock that any explanation must account for:

1. Jesus died by crucifixion. Virtually no scholar doubts this. The crucifixion is attested by multiple sources and fits the historical context perfectly.²

2. The disciples genuinely believed they saw the risen Jesus. This doesn't mean Jesus actually rose — it means his followers weren't lying. They sincerely believed they encountered him alive after his death.³

3. The church persecutor Paul was suddenly converted. Paul was actively hunting Christians when something happened that turned him into Christianity's most prolific missionary.⁴

4. The skeptic James was suddenly converted. Jesus' own brother, who didn't believe during Jesus' ministry, became a leader of the Jerusalem church and was martyred for his faith.⁵

5. The tomb was empty. While a smaller percentage of scholars accept this, a significant majority of those who've published on the subject conclude the tomb was indeed empty.⁶

Any theory about what happened must explain all these facts. Let's examine each more closely.

The Empty Tomb

Multiple Attestation

The empty tomb is reported in multiple independent sources:

• Mark (the earliest Gospel)
• Matthew and Luke (drawing on their own sources)
• John (independent tradition)
• The early creed in 1 Corinthians 15 implies it ("he was buried... he was raised")

When multiple independent sources agree on a fact, historians take notice.

The Jerusalem Factor

Christianity exploded in Jerusalem — the very city where Jesus was buried. If the tomb weren't empty, authorities could have simply produced the body and ended the movement overnight.

They didn't.

Instead, the earliest counter-argument we have — recorded in Matthew 28:11–15 — is that the disciples stole the body. Notice: this argument assumes the tomb was empty. The debate wasn't whether the tomb was empty, but why it was empty.

The Women Witnesses

We covered this in Part 2, but it bears repeating: women discovered the empty tomb. In a culture where women's testimony was devalued, this is an extraordinarily unlikely detail to invent.

N.T. Wright, a leading resurrection scholar, puts it this way:⁷

As historians we are obliged to comment that if these stories had been made up five years later, let alone thirty, forty, or fifty years later, they would never have had Mary Magdalene in this role. The later forgeries... have all-male casts.

The Jewish Polemic

For centuries, Jewish responses to Christianity didn't claim the tomb was occupied. They claimed the disciples stole the body. This only makes sense if everyone knew the tomb was empty.

Justin Martyr (c. 150 AD) records that Jewish opponents were still making this argument over a century later.⁸ They couldn't dispute the empty tomb — only explain it differently.

The Appearances

The disciples didn't just find an empty tomb. They claimed to have seen Jesus alive.

Individual and Group Appearances

The early creed in 1 Corinthians 15 lists appearances to:

• Peter (Cephas)
• The Twelve
• Over 500 people at once (most still alive when Paul wrote)
• James
• All the apostles
• Paul himself

This isn't one person claiming a private vision. It's multiple individuals and groups — including hostile witnesses like Paul and skeptical family members like James.

The 500 Witnesses

Paul mentions that Jesus appeared to over 500 people simultaneously, "most of whom are still alive" when he wrote (c. 53–55 AD).

Why add this detail? Paul is inviting verification. He's essentially saying, "Don't take my word for it — go ask them yourself." This isn't how you write if you're making something up.

Not Hallucinations

Skeptics sometimes suggest the disciples hallucinated. But hallucinations have characteristics that don't match the evidence:⁹

• Hallucinations are individual — they don't happen to groups simultaneously
• Hallucinations require expectation — the disciples weren't expecting Jesus to rise
• Hallucinations don't produce physical interactions — the accounts describe touching Jesus and eating with him
• Hallucinations don't convert skeptics — Paul and James weren't predisposed to believe

Psychologist Gary Collins notes:¹⁰

Hallucinations are individual occurrences. By their very nature only one person can see a given hallucination at a time. They certainly aren't something which can be seen by a group of people.

Varied Circumstances

The appearances happen in different contexts: to individuals and groups, indoors and outdoors, to believers and skeptics, over a period of 40 days. This variety doesn't fit psychological explanations that require specific conditions.

The Transformations

Something happened that transformed frightened, disillusioned followers into bold proclaimers willing to die for their claims.

The Disciples

After the crucifixion, the disciples were hiding in fear. Peter had denied Jesus three times. They had abandoned him at his arrest.

Weeks later, they were publicly proclaiming in Jerusalem that Jesus was risen — facing the same authorities who had just executed their leader. What happened in between?

The resurrection explains this transformation. Alternative explanations struggle to account for it.

James

Jesus' brothers didn't believe in him during his ministry. John 7:5 says plainly that "even his brothers did not believe in him." Mark 3:21 suggests they thought he was "out of his mind."

Yet James became a leader of the Jerusalem church and was eventually martyred for his faith (according to Josephus).¹¹

What changed his mind? The creed in 1 Corinthians 15 says Jesus "appeared to James." A risen appearance to a skeptical family member explains the transformation.

Paul

Paul (then Saul) was actively persecuting Christians. He oversaw the execution of Stephen. He was traveling to Damascus to arrest more believers.

Then something happened on that road that turned Christianity's greatest enemy into its greatest missionary.

Paul's transformation is hard to explain unless he genuinely encountered something that convinced him Jesus was risen. He gained nothing materially — his conversion brought him beatings, imprisonment, shipwrecks, and eventual execution.

Willingness to Die

People don't die for what they know is false.

The disciples were in a position to know whether the resurrection happened. They claimed to have seen, touched, and eaten with the risen Jesus. If they fabricated the story, they would know it was fabricated.

Yet they maintained their testimony under persecution, torture, and execution. Peter was crucified (tradition says upside down). James was beheaded. Paul was beheaded. Thomas was speared. And so on.

Liars make poor martyrs. Whatever the disciples experienced, they were utterly convinced it was real.

Evaluating Alternative Explanations

If the resurrection didn't happen, what did? Every alternative theory must explain:

• The empty tomb
• The sincere belief of the disciples that they saw Jesus
• The conversions of Paul and James
• The explosive growth of a movement proclaiming a crucified and risen Messiah

The Stolen Body Theory

This is the earliest counter-explanation, dating back to Matthew 28. The disciples stole the body and lied about the resurrection.

Problems:

• The disciples showed no signs of conspiring or lying — they went to their deaths maintaining the testimony
• A stolen body doesn't explain the appearances
• A stolen body doesn't explain Paul's and James's conversions
• Conspiracy theories with multiple participants rarely hold up under pressure

The Swoon Theory

Jesus didn't really die — he merely swooned on the cross and later revived in the tomb.

Problems:

• Roman executioners knew how to kill people; professional soldiers verified death
• Even if Jesus somehow survived crucifixion, a half-dead man wouldn't inspire belief in a resurrected conqueror of death
• Medical analysis of crucifixion indicates survival would be virtually impossible¹²
• This theory has been abandoned by virtually all scholars

The Hallucination Theory

The disciples experienced grief-induced hallucinations.

Problems:

• Hallucinations don't happen to groups simultaneously
• Hallucinations require psychological expectation — the disciples weren't expecting resurrection
• Hallucinations don't explain the empty tomb
• Hallucinations don't explain skeptic conversions (Paul, James)
• The varied circumstances of the appearances don't fit hallucination patterns

The Legend Theory

The resurrection story developed over time as legend accumulated around Jesus.

Problems:

• The 1 Corinthians 15 creed dates to within 1–5 years of the events — too early for legend
• Eyewitnesses were still alive and could contradict false claims
• A.N. Sherwin-White's research shows two generations isn't enough time for legend to displace historical core¹³
• The embarrassing details (women witnesses, disciples' failures) wouldn't be invented

The Wrong Tomb Theory

The women went to the wrong tomb, found it empty, and mistakenly concluded Jesus had risen.

Problems:

• Joseph of Arimathea (a known figure) owned the tomb — its location was known
• The authorities could have simply pointed to the correct tomb
• This doesn't explain the appearances or the conversions

Each alternative faces serious objections. The resurrection hypothesis explains all the evidence more simply and completely.

The Inference to the Best Explanation

Historians often reason by "inference to the best explanation." Given the evidence, which hypothesis best accounts for the data?

The evidence:

• Jesus died by crucifixion
• His tomb was empty shortly after
• Multiple individuals and groups reported seeing him alive
• Skeptics (Paul, James) were converted
• The disciples' behavior transformed dramatically
• They maintained their testimony under persecution and death
• The movement exploded in the very city where he was killed

The resurrection hypothesis explains all this straightforwardly: Jesus actually rose from the dead.

Alternative hypotheses must multiply ad hoc assumptions: the disciples hallucinated and someone stole the body and somehow skeptics were convinced and they all decided to die for something they knew was false.

William Lane Craig summarizes:¹⁴

The resurrection hypothesis passes all the standard criteria for being the best explanation: it has great explanatory scope, it has great explanatory power, it is plausible, it is not ad hoc, it is in accord with accepted beliefs, and it far outstrips any rival hypothesis in meeting these conditions.

What If It's True?

If Jesus rose from the dead, the implications are staggering.

It means death isn't final. It means there's something beyond this life. It means Jesus was who he claimed to be. It means his teachings carry divine authority. It means his offer of forgiveness and reconciliation with God is real.

The resurrection isn't just a historical curiosity. It's a claim about the nature of reality that, if true, changes everything.

C.S. Lewis wrote:¹⁵

Christianity, if false, is of no importance, and if true, of infinite importance. The only thing it cannot be is moderately important.

The evidence doesn't force belief. But it should give thoughtful skeptics pause — and give seekers reason to investigate further.

Questions to Consider

• The disciples claimed to see, touch, and eat with the risen Jesus. They went to their deaths maintaining this testimony. What would it take for you to die for something you knew was false?

• The resurrection was proclaimed in Jerusalem within weeks of the crucifixion — where it could have been most easily disproved. What does this suggest about the early Christians' confidence?

• Paul and James started as unbelievers. What kind of experience would convert Christianity's greatest persecutor and Jesus' skeptical brother?

• Every alternative explanation requires multiple additional assumptions. The resurrection hypothesis explains all the evidence directly. What's the most reasonable conclusion?

• If the resurrection happened, what implications might that have — for how we understand death, meaning, and what's ultimately true?

Continue Exploring

This series has surveyed the evidence: Jesus existed, the accounts are remarkably early and well-preserved, and something happened that launched a movement proclaiming his resurrection. We've seen the empty tomb, the appearances, the transformations, and the difficulty alternative explanations face.

The evidence doesn't eliminate the need for faith. But it shows that Christian faith is grounded in historical events — not in myths, legends, or wishful thinking.

The question now is: what will you do with this evidence?

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Want to explore the evidence further? TheoGPT can help you investigate historical sources, examine scholarly arguments, and think through the resurrection evidence at your own pace — with no pressure and no pat answers.

Start exploring →

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Recommended Resources

If this series has sparked your interest, here are resources for deeper investigation:

Accessible Introductions:

• Lee Strobel, The Case for Christ — A journalist's investigation into the evidence
• J. Warner Wallace, Cold-Case Christianity — A detective applies criminal investigation techniques to the Gospels

Academic Treatment:

• N.T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God — The definitive scholarly treatment of resurrection belief in Judaism and early Christianity
• Gary Habermas and Michael Licona, The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus — Systematic treatment of the minimal facts approach

Skeptical but Fair:

• Bart Ehrman, Did Jesus Exist? — An agnostic scholar's argument that Jesus was historical

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Sources

1. Habermas, Gary R. "The Minimal Facts Approach to the Resurrection of Jesus: The Role of Methodology as a Crucial Component in Establishing Historicity." Southeastern Theological Review 3/1 (Summer 2012): 15–26. Habermas has catalogued over 3,400 scholarly publications on the resurrection.

2. Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. Oxford University Press, 2012. Even skeptical scholars accept Jesus' crucifixion as historical bedrock.

3. The disciples' sincere belief is accepted by virtually all scholars. Even Gerd Lüdemann, who denies the resurrection, acknowledges: "It may be taken as historically certain that Peter and the disciples had experiences after Jesus' death in which Jesus appeared to them as the risen Christ." What Really Happened to Jesus, 1995.

4. Paul's conversion is attested in his own letters (Galatians 1:13–16; 1 Corinthians 15:8–10; Philippians 3:4–7) and in Acts (chapters 9, 22, 26). The event itself is universally accepted; its explanation is debated.

5. James's initial unbelief is recorded in John 7:5 and Mark 3:21. His later leadership is attested in Acts 15, Galatians 1–2, and Josephus (Antiquities 20.200), who records his execution.

6. Habermas's research found that roughly 75% of scholars who've published on the subject accept the empty tomb. See "The Late Twentieth-Century Resurgence of Naturalistic Responses to Jesus' Resurrection." Trinity Journal 22NS (2001): 179–96.

7. Wright, N.T. The Resurrection of the Son of God. Fortress Press, 2003. This 800+ page work is the definitive scholarly treatment of resurrection belief in Judaism and early Christianity.

8. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 108 (c. 150 AD). Justin records that Jewish opponents were claiming the disciples stole the body — implicitly conceding the tomb was empty.

9. For psychological analysis of the hallucination theory, see Allison, Dale C. Resurrecting Jesus: The Earliest Christian Tradition and Its Interpreters. T&T Clark, 2005. Allison is sympathetic to some skeptical arguments but finds hallucination theories problematic.

10. Collins, Gary, quoted in Strobel, Lee. The Case for Christ. Zondervan, 1998. Collins was a professor of psychology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School.

11. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 20.200. Josephus records that James "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ" was executed by stoning in 62 AD.

12. Edwards, William D., Wesley J. Gabel, and Floyd E. Hosmer. "On the Physical Death of Jesus Christ." Journal of the American Medical Association 255/11 (1986): 1455–63. This medical analysis concludes Jesus was certainly dead before burial.

13. Sherwin-White, A.N. Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament. Oxford University Press, 1963. Sherwin-White's analysis of legend development in ancient contexts shows two generations is insufficient time for legendary accretion to displace historical core.

14. Craig, William Lane. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Third Edition. Crossway, 2008. Craig's analysis applies standard criteria of historical explanation to the resurrection evidence.

15. Lewis, C.S. God in the Dock: Essays on Theology and Ethics. Eerdmans, 1970.